12-2入世的清教徒
清教主义实践的推动力
清教主义的精髓,部分在于极其重视实践。清教徒认为,真基督教的标记是,它会对人们实际上如何生活产生影响。以利亚撒·马瑟认为,基督徒必须“既用话语传讲,也用生命传讲;你们必须既讲论敬虔,也活出敬虔。”@2约翰·欧文指出:“我们的幸福不在于知道福音,而在于做有关的事。”@3约翰·班扬写道:“宗教信仰的精髓是其实践部分。”@4
这种对实践的重视渗透了清教徒在许多领域里的思想。例如,威廉·埃姆斯坚持认为,传道人在讲道中只把真理阐明是不够的,必须显明基督教教义的“用途、美善或目的”@5。柯顿·马瑟鼓励基督徒默想如何侍奉上帝和服务社会,并要求基督徒“不断思想,直到你下定决心要做某件事,并写下你的决心。”@6
清教徒希望事物有实际用途。在这一话题上,柯顿·马瑟再次定出基调:“有用会带来一种高尚的享受。人如果无论在哪一方面都有用,就能享受无上的欢乐。”@7如果我们考虑到“清教主义行动传统”和“贵格会内修传统”的差异,早期波士顿和费城间那种非常鲜明的对比就毫不足怪了。@8
@1The Saints’Everlasting Rest,pp.34-35.
@2A Serious Exhortation to the Present and Succeeding Generution in Neu England[Ed-mund Morgan.Puritan Family.p.102].
@3Works.14:311.
@4Works[Hill,God’s Englishmun.p.238].
@5The Marrow of Theology,p.193.
@6Essays to Do Good[Perry,p.257].
@7The Minister[Middlekauff.p.191].
@8Baltzell.p.44.
清教徒的实践倾向导致他们强调基督教信仰的本质是体验。仅在理智上认同基督教教义是不够的。清教徒常用的一个词是“经历”,意即“体验”。托马斯·谢泼德写道:
“圣徒们通过经历理解恩典之工,借着这种经历,他们确定无疑地明白这种恩典—–犹如通过感受热,我们知道火是灼热的;通过品尝蜂蜜,我们知道它是甜的。”@1
理查德·席布斯说:“基督徒的生活在于体验。”丁道尔则将“感受到的信心”和“历史的信心”加以比照。@2
回归根基
清教徒有一种把握事物的根本的本领。他们对精心打扮的外在表现深表怀疑,而只信任一个人的内心或一件事物的核心。他们知道,人们告知上帝的事及自己告诉自己的事情,比他们告诉世人的故事,要更能表明实情。
其结果是,他们强调“心灵虔诚”,以清晰区别于外在礼仪。托马斯·瓦特逊写道:
“基督徒最关注的应该是保持内心纯洁,因为内心能圣化我们所做的一切。如果心灵是圣洁的,一切就都是圣洁的——我们的情感是圣洁的,我们的责任也是圣洁的。”@3
当我们读到“人的最佳善行是相信并遵行上帝之道及其意旨”@4时,无疑我们已经把握了事情的核心。
@1The Parable of the Ten Virgins[Strier,p.145].斯特里耳(Strier)评论道:“经验上的张力是历史上清教主义的中心。”(p.145)
@2Sibbes,A Learned Commentary—–[Strier,p.145];Tyndale,Works[Campbell,p.204].
@3The Beatitudes,pp.172,174.
@4John Field.The Second Part of aRegister[Seaver,p.51].
关注内心虔诚,就提出了一种新的伦理观,即:内在动机决定了一项活动是否道德。约翰·普雷斯顿因此写道:
“如果你有纯洁的情感,就可以从事世上一切事务而不会被其玷污,但当你对任何事物怀有无节制的贪欲时,你的灵魂就会受到玷污。”@1
同一观点改变了对工作的态度:
“行业的卑微不能贬抑工作的高尚:因为上帝并不看重工作的外在尊贵,而是看重工人的内心。”@2
@1米勒在Seventeenth Century中引用,p.42。
@2William Perkins,Works[George.p.138].
看重内在真实、而非外在表现,这点也适用于教会和敬拜。约翰·布拉福德设想:对于“基督的真教会”而言,“其真正的美丽全都是内在的,—–外在的东西应该很简单”。@1人的个人价值也是基于同一基础。珀金斯写道,“一个人门第的显赫和荣耀是靠不住的。要单单因他被救出了黑暗王国而喜乐。”@2
简言之,清教徒一定会同意理查德·巴克斯特的观点:“宗教信仰的基本要素是上层建筑的生活。”@3在清教徒的思想里,摆脱繁文缛节、回归基础,意味着回归到符合圣经的初始状态。A.G.迪金斯作过一个大胆的评述:“人若从未感受到这种怀旧之情,没有愿望扫除繁文缛节、穿越几个世纪回归故里,就几乎完全不懂—–新教教会取得的成功。”理查德.席布斯说:“我们追求那条古老的道路,也是最佳的道路。”@4约翰·欧文则主张基督宗教应回归“初始的自由”,并恢复“基督教古老的、荣耀的、美丽的外貌”。@5
平衡的基督徒生活
佩里·米勒说过:“清教徒常使用一些看似矛盾的用语,虽然不总是那么得心应手。”@6这话的意思是,清教徒愿意同时接受两种看来互相矛盾的概念。托马斯·加泰科写道:许多事“对自然人来说显得很古怪、很矛盾,但灵性良好的基督徒经适当思考后却很容易承认它们—–是符合真理的。”@7清教徒擅长综合性地把握基督教神学。这此过程中,他们在基督教信仰的不同方面取得了平衡,而这些方面在历史上曾被割裂。
@1The Hurt of Hearing Mass[Murray.p.17].
@2Works[Hill,Puritanism and Revolution,p.237].
@3Reliquiae[Mitchell.p.272].
@4Dickens.p.138.
@5Sibbes,Yea and Amen[George,p.383];Owen,Works,14:314,311.
@6The Responsibility of Mind in aCivilization of Machines(Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press.1979),p.73.
@7Certain Sermons[Rogers.p.245].
例如,我们来看看清教徒如何看待基督教宗教体验中“头脑和心灵”的平衡。清教徒看重在理智上理解基督教教义,同时也重视情感上的宗教体验。柯顿·马瑟赞扬威廉·埃姆斯“将学者的智慧和心灵对信仰的火热结合了起来”@1。一方面,清教徒说:“激发情感却不动脑子,是没效果、无益处的劳作,它导致了盲目的热心。”@2另一方面,理查德·巴克斯特在教导要理问答时,首先测验他的学生对教义的理解,然后鼓励他们“尽可能—–热烈地回应这些教义,并付诸实践。”@3
清教徒重视宗教信仰上头脑和心灵的平衡,也同样重视理论和实践的平衡。威廉·珀金斯坚持认为:“牧师必须既是好学者,也是敬虔人;不但要有纯正的教义,也要有无可指责的生活。”@4日内瓦圣经序言中说,基督徒生活中有双重推动力:它“主要是通过了解并实践上帝之道而得以成长”。@5
清教徒对世界的态度充满看似矛盾的看法。他们既接纳今世、也否定今世。这个世界既是上帝的世界,基督徒在其中蒙召,使上帝的意旨得胜;同时它也是世俗、罪恶的世界,它勾引人偏离永恒属灵生活的道路。一方面,“上帝将我们置于今世,好为他做工。这是上帝的工场”。@6另一方面,清教徒确信:“若世界在我们心里占有一席之地,就会令我们对上帝虚谎、对人虚谎—–对宗教信仰本身虚谎。因此,要努力将世界踩在你的脚下,这是它应处的位置。”@7
清教徒这种世界观有一个长处:它使人能够同时成为两个世界的公民:“基督徒的生活是一种奇妙的统一:他受制于这个世界,同时期盼并默想另一个世界的生活。”@8
@1Mugnalia Christi Americana[Emerson.Puritanism in America.p.25].
@2Samuel Willard,The Truly Blessed Man[Lowrie,p.39].
@3布朗(Brown)在其作品中引用,p.181。
@4The Calling of the Ministry[Brown.p.79].
@5Trinterud.p.214.
@6Richard Sibbes,Beams of Divine Light[George,p.131].威廉·亚当斯说:信徒“活在世上有许多世务要做,他要在世上尽力,并—–倾注情感”(爱默生在Puritanism in America中引用,pp.141—42)。
@7Richard Sibbes,The Saint’s Cordials[George,p.125].
@8Richard Sibbes.Light From Heaven[Kaufmann,p.134].
基督徒生活的积极行动和沉思默想两方面常有被割裂开的危险。在中世纪,他们确曾分裂。清教徒将二者重新整合。清教徒的注意力主要是私人读经、祷告、默想和自我省察。但他们也是行动派。支持他们行动的工作伦理是,上帝赞许他们的日常工作。清教徒的理想是“与上帝同行,—–不与世界为伍”,同时也“抓住这世上的机遇·顺从上帝”。@1
人的善行和上帝的恩典、律法和福音之间的张力,在基督教神学里反复出现。清教徒的教义宽泛,足以兼容两极。威廉·珀金斯认为下列两种人都应受谴责:那些“只知道怜悯而不知其他的人”及那些“口口声声只谈律法、律法,公义、公义的人”。@2同样,理查德·巴克斯特也写道:
“善行之律要求我们行义,—–这义完全在基督里,没有一点一滴是我们自己的。—–但我们自己各人必须满足新约的条件,以得着自己在福音上的义。”@3
在社会理论中,清教徒同样在权利和责任、个人自由和社群益处、理想主义(认为改善社会体制是可能的)和悲观愤世(认为社会体制必然腐败)之间,走了一条中间道路。清教徒不认为需要在个人圣洁和社会行动之间作出非此即彼的选择;在他们看来,圣经既指示了我们“如何侍奉上帝”,又指示了我们“如何服侍我们所生活的时代”。@4
@1Jeremiah Burroughs,Two Treatises—–[Hyma,p.243].
@2Works[George,p.229].
@3The Saints’Everlasting Rest,p.35.巴克斯特在AChristian Directory中写道:“虽然上帝不需要我们的善行,但良善大大地讨他喜悦,因其指向他的荣耀,带来我们自己及其他人的益处,这正是他所喜悦的。”[Merton,p.61]
@4Increase Mather,David Serving His Generation[Carden,p.5].
埃弗雷特·爱默生(Everett Emerson)对美洲清教主义的描述,很好地总结了前面所述清教徒关于平衡基督徒生活的看法。他说,美洲清教主义:
“重视教会的团契—–但也要求人私下里深刻鉴察自己的灵魂。—–它有很高的理智成分,并非常重视教育,但它也教导说:真正激励人的是心灵,是情感。清教主义是崇尚行动、入世的宗教信仰,但同时又否定任何物质性的东西具有终极价值。它对人类本性深切地悲观,但同时它鼓励人们对美洲的前途持乐观的态度。”@1
高贵的质朴
清教主义运动在很大程度上是一种追求朴素的运动。清教徒努力选择那种催人奋发的质朴,而非令人消沉的简单。
在敬拜中,追求质朴使得教会敬拜程序简化,一切都围绕着上帝之道来进行。清教徒的建筑标志着高雅朴实的胜利。在个人生活方式上,清教徒的理想是适中和节俭,这也反映了类似的理念。露西·哈钦逊(LucyHutchinson)对她清教徒丈夫的外貌有一个众所周知的描述:
“他整洁干净,衣着优雅,热衷于穿质地优良的衣服,然而他很早就不穿任何昂贵的衣服了,但他即使穿上最普通的—–衣着也能显示出他的绅士风度。”@2
神学常常被看成是主观臆测的同义词。因此,我还清楚记得,当我第一次阅读威廉·埃姆斯所著《神学的精髓》(Marrow of Theology)的开篇中这句话时感觉多么清新:“神学是为上帝而活的教义。”威廉·珀金斯的定义同样引人瞩目:“神学是蒙福永活的科学。”@3神学家们曾浪费了大量笔墨争论圣餐礼,但托马斯·瓦特森以清晰出色、光彩照人的风格描述道:“在讲道中,圣徒们听见了基督的声音;而在圣礼中,他们得到了他的吻。”@4
@1Puritanism in America导论[未标注页码]。
@2Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson,p.4.
@3A Golden Chain—–[Breward,p.177].
@4The Beatitudes,p.251.
清教徒的高贵质朴也引人注目地体现在他们的一种恩赐上:即用格言简明扼要地陈述真理。这些格言不仅表达了思想,而且发人深省,令人叹为观止。试看以下各例:
“我们恨人的时候正是上帝爱人的时刻。”@1
“要是地上的事物能够给人带来永远的安慰,谁还会寻求天上的事呢?”@2
“想想吧:反对伟大上帝,这种罪孽严格地说没有一样是轻罪。”@3
“宗教信仰产生了繁荣,繁荣却反过来吞噬了宗教信仰。”@4
“真理不仅可以因邪恶失去,亦可因软弱失去。”@5
这种格言恩赐与清教徒对事物进行精确定义的渴望相结合,就产生了一些脍炙人口的清教徒定义:
“人生的首要目的是荣耀上帝,并以他为乐,直到永远。”@6
“传讲圣道犹如一个百叶窗,基督通过它注视他的圣徒,并向他们显明自己。”@7
“[信心]是劝说自己的心:上帝已为了我赐下他的儿子,他属我,我也属他。”@8
“我对基督教信仰下的定义是,上帝赐下普世的恩典,借着他重生的灵在人的灵魂内动工,使整个人降服于神圣的意旨和慈爱,定意让自己的一切活动都顺服于造他的主,为了造物主的荣耀而活。”@9
@1The Beatitudes,p.235.
@2Anne Bradstreet.Works[Daly.p.82].
@3Ralph Venning.The Plague of Plagues,p.264.
@4Cotton Mather,Magnalia Christi Americana[Foster,p.121].
@5John Owen.Works,16:82.
@6《威斯敏斯特小要理问答》第一问的答案。
@7Thomas Watson,The Beatitudes,p.251.
@8出自托马斯·卡特莱特(Thomas Cartwright),佩尔逊(Pearson)在其作品中引用,p.403.
@9露西·哈钦逊的Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson序言.p.5。
坚固的根基
没有哪种建筑比其根基更强。我们既在讨论清教徒的强项,下结论时就必须提醒读者,清教主义并非只是由一群有很好想法和非凡勇气的人所组成的人类运动。清教徒即使遭遇失败也充满自信,因为他们晓得,自己是一项伟大计划的一部分,这计划远远超越了他们自己。
清教徒在每个议题上都依据圣经,因为他们相信圣经是上帝对真理的可靠启示。当一个人视圣经为生活“完美的、绝对的准则”@1时,他的生活一定会受到难以估量的影响。试想,一个人若接受了威廉·珀金斯的如下格言,多少问题就可以迎刃而解:
“上帝之道必须是我们用于架构与塑造一切活动的准则和规范;根据我们从上帝之道中接受到的指令,我们必须做该做的事,不做不该做的事。”@2
@1Thomas Adams.Works[Ball,p.3].
@2A Treatise of the Vocations or Callings of Men[Breward.p.464].
当然还有一个常见问题有待解决,即如何解释和应用圣经,但判定真知及行动的重要界限已经确立了。现代人认为,要决定有关某事的真理,需要进行盖洛普民意测验;而清教徒的态度则与此截然相反。
上帝的属性也是清教徒思想及行动的根基。上帝的公义和怜悯、圣洁和慈爱,是上帝属性的两极,清教徒在这两极之间进行神学探索。在二者之间,清教徒更突出地宣讲上帝的慈爱。上帝的公义使清教徒更清楚地认识罪和自身的局限,这在他们的思想中居重要地位。但上帝的慈爱是清教徒在世上活出属灵生命的基石。理查德·巴克斯特为这一论题定了基调:
“你在上帝面前蒙爱,这在你眼中是一件小事吗?—–基督徒,你要相信这一点,并要思想这事。你要被永远拥抱在爱的怀抱中,这爱源于永恒、也延续到永恒。”@1
对上帝之爱确信无疑,其必然结果是,清教徒完全依赖基督的赎罪作为称义的根基。清教徒陶醉在自由之中,因他们知道救恩并不依赖于自己的努力。约翰·弗拉维尔写道:“我们被称义、蒙拯救,是借着基督的义,此外别无其他。”并说:“他成就了义,我们披戴他的义。”@2得救的个人体验是清教徒认识自我的基础。托马斯·古德温是在一次葬礼上皈信的。他说,当时“上帝将我带到一旁,像是对我自己说:‘你现在回转归向我,我就赦免你一切的罪孽。’”@3对个人身份的强烈意识,即晓得在基督里他们是谁,是清教徒的标志。
今天的作家和历史学者把人们亲身经历并叙述的事情称为“故事”。清教徒则视自己为追求上帝和天国的天路客。天路之旅引导人经历、而非逃避这个世界。清教徒认为,在美善与邪恶、上帝和撒旦之间的重大属灵战争中,他们是主角。虽然他们是身处战斗中、在征途上的基督徒,但他们对胜利充满确信,因为他们是在上帝这一边。虽然清教徒既相信希望神学,也相信苦难神学,但希望大过苦难。这也是清教徒为了信仰愿意面对迫害的勇气所在。
@1The Saints’Everlasting Rest.p.45.
@2Works[Ball,p.58].
@3Works[Perry,p.277].
小结
在我们生活的这个历史时刻,福音派新教徒都在寻根。有些人企图强加给他们一个谎言,即他们所能回归的仅有传统是天主教传统和圣公会传统。就像身为以色列教师的尼哥底母并不晓得新生那样,福音派新教徒也对他们自己的最佳传统究竟是什么感到陌生。
清教主义给我们提供了一个立足点。清教徒相信生活的一切都属于上帝。这使他们能够将个人敬虔和基督教的总世界观结合起来。从圣经是真理的可靠宝库这一前提出发,清教徒将基督教信仰和生活的一切领域(包括工作、家庭、婚姻、教育、政治、经济和社会),都联系在一起。
清教徒对今世生活持积极态度,源于他们新生命中的一切——祷告、基督徒团契、默想、讲道、阅读圣经。清教主义关于个人救恩的神学,和他们在世上积极主动的生活息息相关。
延伸阅读
要想品味清教徒的长处和吸引力,就必须阅读第一手的清教徒作品。在现代再版的清教徒原始著作中,由真理旌旗出版社(the Banner ofTruth Trust)出版的一套丛书是最好的,我大力推崇这套丛书。约翰·班扬和约翰·弥尔顿的作品也是极好的起点。
我对清教主义最积极的印象来自于一些传记般的研究长文,例如:N.H.基伯(N.H.Keeble)的Richard Baxter:Puritan Man of Letters(1982);厄内斯特·B.洛里(Ernest B.Lowrie)的The Shape of the Puritan Mind:The Thought of Samuel Willard(1974);德里克·谢尔温·拜利(Derrick Sherwin Bailey)的Thomas Becon and the Refor-mation of the Church in England(1952).
清教徒自传和默想书籍常是吸引人了解清教主义的人门资料。欧文·C.瓦特金斯(Owen C.Watkins)的The Puritan Experience:Studies in Spiritual Autobiography(1972)提供了很好的第二手资料。露西·哈钦逊在她的Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson(牛津大学出版社1973年再版)一书序言中对她的丈夫作了很生动的描绘;其中有十几页描写了理想清教徒的形象,是不可多得的佳品。
参考书目
以下书目仅罗列本书脚注中经常引用的参考书,它们在脚注中为缩写形式。一些较少引用的、进一步的参考资料,已附在每一章末尾的“延伸阅读”部分及内文的脚注中,在那里已列出了详细的出版信息。
Ames,William.Conscience with the Power and Cases Thereof.1639;reprint Norwood,N.J.Walter J.Johnson,1975.
The Marrow of Theology,ed.John D.Eusden.Boston:Pil-grim,1968.
Ashley,Maurice.Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Revolution.Lon-don:English Universities Press,1958.
Avis,Paul D.L.The Church in the Theology of the Reformers.At-lanta:John Knox,1981.
Axtell,James.The School Upon aHill:Education and Society in Co-lonial New England.New York:W.W.Norton,1976.
Babbage,Stuart B.Puritanism and Richard Bancroft.London:S.P.C.K.,1962.
Bailey,Derrick Sherwin.Sexual Relation in Christian Thought.New York:Harper and Brothers,1959.
.Thomas Becon and the Reformation of the Church in Eng-land.Edinburgh:Oliver and Boyd,1952.
Ball,Bryan W.The English Connection:The Puritan Roots of Seventh-day Adventist Belief.Cambridge:James Clarke,1981.Baltzell,E.Digby.Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia.New York:The Free Press,1979.
Baroway.Israel.”The Bible as Poetry in the English Renaissance:An Introduction.”Journal of English and Germanic Philology32(1933):447-80.
Baxter,Richard.Chapters from AChristian Directory,ed.Jeannette Tawney.London:G.Bell and Sons,1925.
The Autobiography of Richard Baxter.London:J.M.Dent,1931.
The Reformed Pastor,ed.William Brown.Edinburgh:Ban-ner of Truth Trust,1974.
The Saints’Everlasting Rest.Westwood,N.J.Fleming H.Revell,1962.
Bolton,Samuel.The True Bounds of Christian Freedom.Edinburgh:Banner of Truth Trust,1964.
Breen,T.H.The Character of the Good Ruler:A Study of Puritan Political Ideas in New England,1630-1730.New Haven:Yale University Press,1970.
Bremer,Francis J.The Puritan Experiment New England Society from Brad ford to Edwards.New York:St.Martin’s,1976.Breward,Ian,ed.The Work of William Perkins.Appleford:Sutton Courtenay,1970.
Brown John.Puritan Preaching in England.New York:Scribner,1900.
Bunyan,John.Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners and The Pilgrim’s Progress,ed.Roger Sharrock.London:Oxford Univer-sity Press,1966.
Cairns,Earle E.”The Puritan Philosophy of Education.”Bibliotheca Sacra104(1947):326-36.
Campbell,W.E.Erasmus,Tyndale,and More.London:Eyre and Spottiswoode,1949.
Carden,Allen.”The Word of God in Puritan New England:Seven-teenth Century Perspectives on the Nature and Authority of the Bi-ble.”Andrews University Seminary Studies18(Spring1980):1-16.
Carroll,Peter N.Puritanism and the Wilderness:The Intellectual Sig-nificance of the New England Frontier,1629-1700.New York:Columbia University Press,1969.
Clebsch,William A.England’s Earliest Protestants,1520-1535.New Haven:Yale University Press,1964.
Cole,William G.Sex in Christianity and Psychoanalysis.New York:Oxford University Press,1966.
Collinson,Patrick.The Elizabethan Puritan Movement.Berkeley:U-niversity of California Press,1967.
Coolidge,John S.The Pauline Renaissance in England:Puritanism and the Bible.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1970.
Crawford,Mary Caroline.Social Life in Old New England.New York:Grosset and Dunlap,1914.
Crouch,Joseph.Puritanism and Art:An Inquiry into aPopular Fal-lacy.London:Cassell,1910.
Curtis,Mark H.Oxford and Cambridge in Transition,1558-1642.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1959.
Daly,Robert.God’s Altar:The World and the Flesh in Puritan Poet-ry.Berkeley:University of California Press,1978.
Davies,Horton.The Worship of the English Puritans.Westminster:Dacre,1948.
.Worship and Theology in England:From Andrewes to Baxter and Fox,1603-1690.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1975.
Worship and Theology in England:From Cranmer to Hooker,1534-1603.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1970.
Demos,John.A Little Commonwealth:Family Life in Plymouth Col-ony.New York:Oxford University Press,1970.
Dennison,James T.The Puritan Doctrine of the Sabbath in England,1532-1700.Pittsburgh:Pittsburgh Theological Seminary thesis,1973.
Dickens,A.G.The English Re formation.New York:Schocken Books,1964.
Elliott,Emory.Power and the Pulpit in Puritan New England.Prin-ceton:Princeton University Press,1975.
Emerson,Everett.ed.English Puritanism from John Hooper to John Milton.Durham,North Carolina:Duke University Press,1968.
.Puritanism in America,1620-1750.Boston:Twayne,1977.Eusden,John Dykstra.Puritans,Lawyers,and Politics in Early Sev-enteenth Century England.New Haven:Yale University Press,1958.
Fleming,Sanford.Children and Puritanism.New Haven:Yale Uni-versity Press,1933.
Forrester,W.R.Christian Vocation.New York:Scribner,1953.Foster,Stephen.Their Solitary Way:The Puritan Social Ethic in the First Century of Settlement in New England.New Haven:Yale University Press,1971.
Frye,Roland M.”The Teachings of Classical Puritanism on Conjugal Love.”Studies in the Renaissance,2(1955):148-59.
George,Charles H.and Katherine George.The Protestant Mind of the English Reformation,1570-1640.Princeton:Princeton Uni-versity Press,1961.
Gooch,G.P.English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1927.
Greaves.Richard L.Society and Religion in Elizabethan England.Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1981.
The Puritan Revolution and Educational Thought:Back-ground for Reform.New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press.1969.
Green.Robert W.,ed.Protestantism and Capitalism:The Weber Thesis and Its Critics.Boston:D.C.Heath,1959.
Greven,Philip.ed.Child-Rearing Concepts,1628-1861.Itasca.Ill.:F.E.Peacock,1973.
.The Protestant Temperament:Patterns of Child-Rearing,Re-ligious Experience,and the Self in Early America.New York:Knopf,1977.
Halkett,John.Milton and the Idea of Matrimony.New Haven:Yale University Press.1970.
Haller,William.Liberty and Reformation in the Puritan Revolution.New York:Columbia University Press,1955,1963.
.The Rise of Puritanism.New York:Columbia University Press.1938.
Haller,William.and Malleville Haller.”The Puritan Art of Love.”Huntington Library Quarterly5(1941-42):235-72.
Hambrick-Stowe,Charles E.The Practice of Piety:Puritan Devotion-al Disciplines in Seventeenth-Century New England.Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1982.
Hamilton,Roberta.The Liberation of Women:A Study of Patriarchy and Capitalism.Winchester,Mass.Allen Unwin,1978.
Harkness,Georgia.John Calvin:The Man and His Ethics.Nashville:Abingdon,1958.
Hawyard,F.H.The Unknoun Cromwell.London:Allen and Unwin,1934.
Hill,Christopher.Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century Eng-land.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1975.
.God’s Englishman:Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolu-tion.New York:Harper and Row,1970.
Puritanism and Revolution:Studies in Interpretation of the English Revolution of the Seventeenth Century.London:Secker and Warburg,1958.
Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England.New York:Schocken Books,1964.
Holifield,E.Brooks.The Covenant Sealed The Development of Pu-ritan Sacramental Theology in Old and New England,1570-1720.New Haven:Yale University Press,1974.
Hudson,Winthrop S.”The Ministry in the Puritan Age,”in The Min-istry in Historical Perspectives,ed.H.Richard Niebuhr and Dan-iel D.Williams.New York:Harper and Brothers,1956,pp.180-206.
Hughes,Philip E.Theology of the English Reformers.Grand Rapids:Eerdmans,1965.
Hunt,Morton M.The Natural History of Love.New York:Knopf,1959.
Hutchinson,Lucy.Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson,ed.James Sutherland.London:Oxford University Press,1973.
Hyma,Albert.Christianity,Capitalism and Communism:A Histori-cal Analysis.Ann Arbor:George Wahr,1937.
Irwin,Joyce L.,ed.Womanhood in Radical Protestantism,1525-1675.New York:Edwin Mellen,1979.
James,Margaret.Social Problems and Policy During the Puritan Rev-olution,1640-1660.1930;reprint New York:Barnes and No-ble,1966.
Jarman,Robert D.The Regulative Principle of Scripture:The Origin of aCardinal Doctrine in the Early Elizabethan Puritan Move-ment.Unpublished thesis,Trinity Evangelical Divinity School,1977.
Johnson,James Turner.A Society Ordained by God:English Puritan Marriage Doctrine in the First Half of the Seventeenth Century.Nashville:Abingdon,1970.
Jordan,W.K.The Development of Religious Toleration in England,2vols.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1932,1936.
Kaufmann,U.Milo.The Pilgrim’s Progress and Traditions in Puri-tan Meditation.New Haven:Yale University Press,1966.
Keeble,N.H.Richard Baxter:Puritan Man of Letters.Oxford:Ox-ford University Press,1982.
Kitch,M.J.,ed.Capitalism and the Reformation.London:Long-mans,Green,1967.
Knappen,M.M.Tudor Puritanism:A Chapter in the History of Ide-alism.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1939.
ed.Two Elizabethan Puritan Diaries.1933;reprint Glouces-ter,Mass.Peter Smith,1966.
Knott,John R.,Jr.The Sword of the Spirit:Puritan Responses to the Bible.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1980.
Lerner,Laurence.Love and Marriage:Literature and Its Social Con-text.New York:St.Martin’s,1979.
Lewalski,Barbara K.Protestant Poetics and the Seventeenth-Century Religious Lyric.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1979.Lewis,Peter.The Genius of Puritanism.Haywards Heath,Sussex:Carey,1977.
Lowrie,Ernest Benson.The Shape of the Puritan Mind:The Thought of Samuel Willard.New Haven:Yale University Press,1974.Luther,Martin.Luther’s Works,ed.Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T.Lehmann,55vols.St.Louis:Concordia;and Philadelphia:For-tress,1955-1976.
Mather,Cotton.Magnalia Christi Americana,2vols.New York:Russell and Russell,1967.
McGee,J.Sears.The Godly Man in Stuart England:Anglicans,Pu-ritans,and the Two Tables,1620-1670.New Haven:Yale Uni-versity Press,1976.
McGiffert,Michael,ed.Puritanism and the American Experience.Reading,Mass.Addison-Wesley,1969.
McNeill,John Thomas.Modern Christian Movements.Philadelphia:Westminster,1954.
Merton,Robert K.Science,Technology,and Society in Seventeenth Century England.New York:Howard Fertig,1970.
Micklem,Nathaniel,ed.Christian Worship:Studies in Its History and Meaning.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1971.
Middlekauff,Robert.The Mathers:Three Generations of Puritan In-tellectuals.New York:Oxford University Press,1971.
Miller,Perry.Errand into the Wilderness.Cambridge:Harvard Uni-versity Press,1956.
Nature’s Nation.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1967.
The New England Mind:From Colony to Province.Cam-bridge:Harvard University Press,1953.
_.The New England Mind:The Seventeenth Century.Cam-bridge:Harvard University Press,1939,1954.
Miller,Perry,and Thomas H.Johnson,eds.The Puritans,rev.ed.,2vols.New York:Harper Torchbooks,1963.
Milton,John.Complete Prose Works,8vols.New Haven:Yale Uni-versity Press,1953-.Abbreviated CPW.
Mitchell,W.Fraser.English Pulpit Oratory from Andrewes to Till-otson.London:S.P.C.K.,1932.
Morgan,Edmund S.,ed.Puritan Political Ideas,1558-1794.Indi-anapolis:BobbsMerrill,1965.
The Puritan Family:Religion and Domestic Relations in Sev-enteenth-Century New England.1944;reprint New York:Harper and Row,1966.
“The Puritans and Sex,”in Pivotal Interpretations of Ameri-can History,ed.Carl N.Degler.New York:Harper and Row,1966.1:4-16.
Morgan,Irvonwy.The Godly Preachers of the Elizabethan Church.London:Epworth,1965.
Morison,Samuel Eliot.Harvard College in the Seventeenth Century,2vols.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1936.
_.The Founding of Harvard College.Cambridge:Harvard Uni-versity Press,1935.
.The Intellectual Life of Colonial New England.New York:Washington Square Press,1956.
Murray,lain,ed.The Re formation of the Church ACollection of Re-formed and Puritan Documents on Church Issues.London:Banner of Truth Trust,1965.
New,John F.H.Anglican and Puritan:The Basis of Their Opposi-tion,1558-1640.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1964.Old,Hughes Oliphant.Worship that is Rgarmed According to Scrip-ture.Guides to the Reformed Tradition.Atlanta:John Knox,1984.
Owen,John.The Works of John Owen,16vols.ed.William H.Goold.London:Banner of Truth Trust,1966.
Packer,J.I.”The Puritans as Interpreters of Scripture.In AGoodly Heritage.London:Puritan Studies Conference,1958,pp.18-26.
Pearson,A.F.Scott.Thomas Cartwright and Elizabethan Puritan-ism,1535-1603.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1925.Perry,Ralph Barton.Puritanism and Democracy.New York:Van-guard,1944.
Plass,Ewald M.ed.What Luther Says:An Anthology,3vols.St.Louis:Concordia,1959.
Porter,H.C.Puritanism in Tudor England.Columbia,S.C.:Uni-versity of South Carolina Press,1971.
.Reformation and Reaction in Tudor Cambridge.1958;reprint Camden,Conn.Archon Books,1972.
Powell,Chilton Latham.English Domestic Relations,1487-1653.1917;reprint New York:Russell and Russell,1972.
Puritan Manifestoes:A Study of the Origin of the Puritan Revolt,ed.W.H.Frere and C.E.Douglas.London:S.P.C.K.,1954.
Reinitz,Richard,ed.Tensions in American Puritanism.New York:John Wiley and Sons,1970.
Richardson,Herbert W.Nun,Witch,Playmate:The Americanization of Sex.New York:Harper and Row,1971.
Richardson,R.C.Puritanism in North-West England ARegional Study of Chester to1642.Manchester:Manchester University Press,1972.
Robertson,A.M.Aspects of the Rise of Economic Individualism.New York:Kelley and Millman,1959.
Rogers,Jack Bartlett.Scripture in the Westminster Confission.Grand Rapids:Eerdmans,1967.
Rooy,Sidney H.The Theology of Missions in the Puritan Tradition.Grand Rapids:Eerdmans,1965.
Sasek,Lawrence A.The Literary Temper ofthe English Puritans.1961;reprint New York:Greenwood,1969.
Schlatter,Richard B.The Social Ideas of Religious Leaders,1660-1688.1940;reprint New York:Octagon Books,1971.
Schneider,Herbert Wallace.The Puritan Mind.New York:Henry Holt,1930.
Schnucker,Robert Victor.Views of Selected Puritans,1560-1630,on Marriage and Human Sexuality.Iowa City:University of lowa Dissertation,1969.
Scholes,Percy A.The Puritans and Music in England and New Eng-land.London:Oxford University Press,1934.
Schücking,Levin L.The Puritan Family:A Social Study from the Literary Sources.New York:Schocken Books,1970.
Seaver,Paul S.The Puritan Lectureships:The Politics of Religious Dissent,1560-1662.Stanford:Stanford University Press,1970.Smith,J.W.Ashley.The Birth of Modern Education:The Contribu-tion of the Dissenting Academies,1660-1800.London:Inde-pendent Press,1954.
Smith,H.Shelton et al.eds.American Christianity:An Historical Interpretation with Representative Documents,vol.1.New York:Scribner,1960.
Smith,Wilson,ed.Theories of Education in Early America,1655-1819.Indianapolis:Bobbs-Merrill,1973.
Solberg,Winton U.Redeem the Time:The Puritan Sabbath in Early America.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1977.
Stannard,David E.The Puritan Way of Death AStudy in Religion,Culture,and Social Change.New York:Oxford University Press,1977.
Stenton,Doris Mary.The English Woman in History.London:Allen and Unwin,1957.
Stone,Lawrence.The Crisis of the Aristocracy,1558-1641.Ox-ford:Oxford University Press,1965.
The Family,Sex and Marriage in England,1500-1688.New York:Harper and Row,1977.
Strier,Richard.Love Known:Theology and Experience in George Herbert’s Poetry.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1983.Tawney,R.H.Religion and the Rise of Capitalism.New York:Har-court,Brace,1926.
Tichi,Cecilia.New World,New Earth:Environmental Reform in A-merican Literature from the Puritans Through Whitman.New Haven:Yale University Press,1979.
Trinterud,Leonard J.ed.Elizabeth Puritanism.New York:Oxford University Press,1971.
Ulrich,Laurel Thatcher.Good Wives:Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England,1650-1750.New York:Knopf,1982.
“Vertuous Women Found:New England Ministerial Literature,1668-1735,”in Puritan New England,ed.Alden T.Vaughan and Francis J.Bremer.New York:St.Martin’s,1977,pp.215-31.
Vaughan,Alden T.,and Francis J.Bremer,eds.Puritan New Eng-land:Essays on Religion,Society,and Culture.New York:St.Martin’s,1977.
Venning,Ralph.The Plague of Plagues.London:Banner of Truth Trust,1965.
Wagner,Hans-Peter.Puritan Attitudes Towards Recreation in Early Seventeenth Century New England.Frankfurt:Verlag Peter Lang,1982.
Wakefield,Gordon S.Puritan Devotion:Its Place in the Development of Christian Piety.London:Epworth,1957.
Walzer,Michael.The Revolution of the Saints:A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics.Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1965.Warfield,Benjamin B.The Westminster Assembly and Its Work.New York:Oxford University Press,1931.
Watkins,Owen C.The Puritan Experience:Studies in Spiritual Au-tobiography.New York:Schocken Books,1972.
Watson,Foster.The English Grammar Schools to1660:Their Curric-ulum and Practice.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1980.
Watson,Thomas.The Beatitudes.Edinburgh:Banner of Truth Trust,1977).
Weber,Max.The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,trans.Talcott Parsons.New York:Scribner,1930.
White,Helen C.Social Criticism in Popular Religious Literature of the Sixteenth Century.New York:Macmillan,1944.
Wilson,Derek.The People and the Book:The Revolutionary Impact of the English Bible,1380-1611.London:Barrie and Jenkins,1976.
Wilson,John F.Pulpit in Parliament:Puritanism During the English Civil Wars,1640-1648.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1969.
Wood house,A.S.P.,ed.Puritanism and Liberty.Chicago:Chicago University Press,1951.
Wright,Louis B.Life in Colonial America.New York:Capricorn Books,1965.
Middle-Class Culture in Elizabethan England.Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1935.
Wright,Thomas G.Literary Culture in Early New England,1620-1730.1920;reprint New York:Russell and Russell,1966.